Environmentalism and Political Theory: Toward an Ecocentric Approach

Citation

Eckersley, R. (1992). Environmentalism and Political Theory: Toward an Ecocentric Approach. UCL Press.

Chapter Summary

Part I: Staking out the Green Terrain

Chapter 1: The Development of Modern Ecopolitical Thought
This chapter traces the evolution of modern ecopolitical thought, highlighting the shifts from issues of participation and survival to broader themes of emancipation. It addresses the crisis of participation, the survivalist focus of the 1970s, and the cultural and emancipatory critiques that emerged in response.

Chapter 2: Exploring the Environmental Spectrum
Eckersley explores the range of environmental thought from anthropocentrism to ecocentrism, examining various streams of environmentalism such as resource conservation, human welfare ecology, preservationism, animal liberation, and ecocentrism.

Chapter 3: Ecocentrism Explained and Defended
This chapter provides a comprehensive explanation of ecocentrism, addressing common criticisms and exploring its philosophical foundations through theories like autopoietic intrinsic value theory, transpersonal ecology, and ecofeminism.

Part II: An Ecocentric Analysis of Green Political Thought

Chapter 4: The Ecocentric Challenge to Marxism
Eckersley critiques Marxism from an ecocentric perspective, analyzing orthodox and humanist eco-Marxism and proposing the need to move beyond traditional Marxist frameworks.

Chapter 5: The Failed Promise of Critical Theory
This chapter examines the contributions and limitations of the Frankfurt School’s Critical Theory, focusing on the works of Horkheimer, Adorno, Marcuse, and Habermas, and their relevance to ecocentric thought.

Chapter 6: Ecosocialism: The Post-Marxist Synthesis
Eckersley discusses ecosocialism as a synthesis of ecological and socialist thought, addressing critiques of scientific socialism and the need for new internationalism and an alternative green market economy.

Chapter 7: Ecoanarchism: The Non-Marxist Visionaries
This chapter explores ecoanarchism, particularly the social ecology of Murray Bookchin, and debates around decentralization, local democracy, and ecological stewardship.

Conclusion
Eckersley concludes by synthesizing the key elements of an ecocentric political theory, drawing from the critical dialogue with various currents of Green political thought discussed in the book.

Key Concepts

1. Ecocentrism:

• Ecocentrism is the philosophical viewpoint that recognizes the intrinsic value of all living beings and the ecosystems they inhabit, rather than viewing them merely as resources for human use. It challenges the anthropocentric (human-centered) perspective that dominates much of traditional political and environmental thought.

1. Anthropocentrism:

• Anthropocentrism is the belief that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world. It is a perspective that considers humans as separate from and superior to nature, often leading to the exploitation of natural resources for human benefit.

1. Green Political Theory:

• Green political theory is an emerging field that integrates environmental concerns into political thought. It seeks to address the ecological crisis by promoting sustainability, environmental justice, and the protection of natural ecosystems through political action and policy.

1. Participatory Democracy:

• A key theme in ecopolitical thought, participatory democracy emphasizes the importance of involving citizens directly in the decision-making processes that affect their lives and environments. It contrasts with representative democracy by advocating for more grassroots and community-level participation.

1. Ecosocialism:

• Ecosocialism combines aspects of socialism with ecological concerns. It critiques both capitalism and traditional Marxism for their failure to address environmental degradation, proposing a new synthesis that emphasizes sustainable development, social justice, and the democratization of the economy.

1. Ecoanarchism:

• Ecoanarchism is a branch of anarchism that integrates ecological principles. It advocates for the dismantling of hierarchical structures and the creation of decentralized, self-managed communities that live in harmony with the natural world. Murray Bookchin’s social ecology is a prominent example of ecoanarchist thought.

1. Critical Theory:

• Originating from the Frankfurt School, Critical Theory critiques the structures of power and domination in society. In the context of ecopolitics, it examines how industrial capitalism and technological rationality contribute to environmental degradation and explores alternatives for achieving a more just and sustainable society.

1. Intrinsic Value Theory:

• Intrinsic value theory posits that nature and all living beings have inherent worth, independent of their utility to humans. This theory underpins many ecocentric arguments, advocating for the moral consideration of non-human entities and ecosystems.

1. Deep Ecology:

• Deep ecology is a movement and philosophy that promotes the inherent worth of all living beings and the need for a radical shift in human consciousness to recognize and respect the interconnectedness of all life. It calls for profound changes in human behavior and societal structures to protect the natural world.

1. Ecofeminism:
   • Ecofeminism links the exploitation of nature with the oppression of women, arguing that the domination of women and the environment are interconnected. It advocates for an end to all forms of domination and promotes a more holistic and egalitarian relationship with nature.
2. Environmental Crisis as Cultural and Character Crisis:
   • The environmental crisis is seen not only as a physical threat but also as a crisis of culture and character. This perspective highlights the need for a fundamental reevaluation of human values, attitudes, and behaviors towards nature, calling for cultural renewal and the development of an ecological consciousness.
3. Technological and Economic Critique:
   • Ecocentric thought includes a critique of technological and economic systems that prioritize growth and efficiency over environmental sustainability. It questions the reliance on technological fixes and economic models that fail to account for ecological limits and the well-being of future generations.
4. Social Hierarchy and Domination:
   • Ecocentric analysis often critiques social hierarchies and systems of domination, including class, gender, race, and species. It calls for the dismantling of these hierarchies to create more equitable and sustainable societies that respect the intrinsic value of all beings.

These key concepts form the foundation of Robyn Eckersley’s Environmentalism and Political Theory: Toward an Ecocentric Approach. They are crucial for understanding the book’s argument for a shift from anthropocentric to ecocentric political thought and practice.

Critical Analysis

Ecocentrism vs. Anthropocentrism
Eckersley’s work makes a compelling case for ecocentrism by contrasting it sharply with anthropocentrism. The critical analysis of anthropocentrism highlights its role in perpetuating environmental degradation and species extinction by prioritizing human interests over those of the nonhuman world. Eckersley argues that this human-centered perspective is deeply embedded in both liberal and Marxist traditions, making it necessary to develop a new ecocentric framework.

Critique of Modern Political Theories
Eckersley critically examines how traditional political theories, including conservatism, liberalism, and Marxism, fall short in addressing the ecological crisis. Conservatism is dismissed for its inherent resistance to radical change and its endorsement of hierarchical authority, which are seen as incompatible with the egalitarian and transformative goals of Green political thought. Liberalism, with its roots in individualism and private property, is critiqued for legitimizing endless material accumulation and exploitation of nature. Orthodox Marxism, despite its revolutionary potential, is also found wanting due to its commitment to industrialism and human domination of nature.

Theoretical Foundations of Ecocentrism
The book provides a robust defense of ecocentrism by drawing on various philosophical traditions. The three varieties of ecocentrism explored—autopoietic intrinsic value theory, transpersonal ecology, and ecofeminism—offer different pathways to conceptualize and justify the intrinsic value of the nonhuman world. This pluralistic approach strengthens the case for ecocentrism by showing its philosophical richness and adaptability.

Green Political Thought and Participatory Democracy
One of the strengths of Eckersley’s analysis is the integration of participatory democracy into Green political theory. By emphasizing grassroots democracy, the book addresses the need for inclusive and decentralized decision-making processes that empower local communities. This approach is presented as a way to counteract the failures of centralized, top-down policies that often ignore ecological and social complexities.

Ecosocialism and Ecoanarchism
Ecosocialism and ecoanarchism are critically evaluated as potential frameworks for achieving an ecocentric society. Ecosocialism is praised for its critique of capitalist growth and its emphasis on social justice, but Eckersley questions whether it can fully transcend its Marxist roots. Ecoanarchism, particularly the ideas of Murray Bookchin, is highlighted for its visionary approach to decentralization and local autonomy. However, the feasibility of such radical decentralization is scrutinized, especially in the context of global environmental challenges.

Critique of Critical Theory
Eckersley’s examination of the Frankfurt School’s Critical Theory reveals both its contributions and limitations. While theorists like Marcuse and Habermas provide valuable insights into the role of instrumental rationality in environmental degradation, their human-centered focus limits their ability to fully embrace an ecocentric perspective. The book argues for a more comprehensive critique that includes nonhuman interests.

Integration of Feminist Perspectives
Ecofeminism is a significant strand in Eckersley’s ecocentric framework. By linking the domination of nature with the oppression of women, ecofeminism provides a holistic critique of patriarchal structures and offers a more inclusive vision of social and ecological justice. This integration of feminist perspectives enriches the overall analysis and highlights the intersectionality of ecological and social issues.

Cultural and Ethical Transformation
Eckersley emphasizes the need for a cultural and ethical transformation to support an ecocentric political theory. This involves rethinking human values, attitudes, and behaviors towards nature. The book argues that such a transformation is essential for achieving a sustainable and just society, and it explores various pathways for fostering this shift, including education, ethical reflection, and community engagement.

Challenges and Practical Considerations
While the theoretical foundations of ecocentrism are well-articulated, the book acknowledges the practical challenges of implementing such a radical shift. Issues such as political feasibility, economic restructuring, and global cooperation are critically examined. Eckersley calls for a pragmatic approach that balances visionary goals with realistic strategies for change.

Real-World Applications and Examples

Policy Reforms and Green Governance
The book suggests various policy reforms to translate ecocentric principles into practice. These include the adoption of green taxes, subsidies for renewable energy, and stringent environmental regulations. It also advocates for the creation of green governance structures that prioritize ecological sustainability and involve diverse stakeholders in decision-making processes.

Community-Based Initiatives
Eckersley emphasizes the importance of community-based initiatives in fostering an ecocentric society. Examples include local conservation projects, community gardens, and participatory land-use planning. These initiatives demonstrate how grassroots efforts can lead to significant environmental benefits and enhance social cohesion.

Education and Awareness Programs
Promoting ecological education and raising public awareness are crucial for achieving cultural transformation. The book highlights successful programs that integrate environmental education into school curricula and public campaigns that raise awareness about sustainability issues. These efforts help to cultivate an ecological consciousness among individuals and communities.

Corporate Responsibility and Sustainable Business Practices
Eckersley discusses the role of businesses in contributing to an ecocentric society. She highlights examples of companies that have adopted sustainable practices, such as reducing waste, using renewable energy, and committing to fair trade. These practices demonstrate how businesses can align profitability with ecological and social responsibility.

International Environmental Agreements
The book underscores the importance of international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. Examples include the Paris Agreement on climate change and the Convention on Biological Diversity. These agreements illustrate the potential for collective action to achieve significant environmental outcomes, despite the complexities of international politics.

Case Studies of Ecological Restoration
Eckersley provides case studies of successful ecological restoration projects, such as wetland restoration, reforestation, and wildlife conservation programs. These examples show how ecocentric principles can be applied to restore degraded ecosystems and enhance biodiversity.

Sustainable Urban Planning
The book explores examples of sustainable urban planning that incorporate ecocentric principles. Initiatives such as green building designs, urban green spaces, and sustainable transportation systems are highlighted. These examples demonstrate how cities can reduce their ecological footprint and improve the quality of life for their residents.

Integration of Indigenous Knowledge
Eckersley emphasizes the value of integrating Indigenous knowledge and practices into environmental management. Examples include the use of traditional land stewardship practices and the recognition of Indigenous land rights. These approaches highlight the importance of respecting and learning from diverse cultural perspectives in ecological governance.

Ethical Consumerism
The book discusses the impact of ethical consumerism in promoting an ecocentric society. Examples include the growing market for organic food, eco-friendly products, and ethical investment funds. These trends indicate a shift towards consumer behaviors that prioritize sustainability and social justice.

Challenges and Opportunities in Transitioning to Ecocentrism
Eckersley acknowledges the challenges of transitioning to an ecocentric society, including resistance from entrenched interests, economic disruptions, and social inequalities. However, she also highlights opportunities for innovation, community resilience, and global cooperation. The book calls for a balanced approach that combines visionary goals with practical strategies for achieving sustainable change.

By integrating these real-world applications and examples, Eckersley’s work provides a comprehensive guide for implementing ecocentric principles in various contexts, illustrating the practical relevance and transformative potential of her theoretical framework.