Neither Man nor Beast: Feminism and the Defense of Animals

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Neither Man nor Beast: Feminism and the Defense of Animals

APA Citation:

Adams, C. J. (2016). Neither man nor beast: Feminism and the defense of animals. Bloomsbury Methuen Drama.

Intellectual & Historical Context

Carol J. Adams, a prominent feminist theorist and animal rights activist, wrote Neither Man nor Beast as a follow-up to her influential The Sexual Politics of Meat (1990). The book extends her analysis of the interconnections between patriarchy, speciesism, and other systems of oppression, applying an ecofeminist lens to issues of animal exploitation, food ethics, reproductive rights, and violence.

Published originally in 1994 and later republished in 2016 under Bloomsbury’s Revelations series, the book emerged at a time when both feminist and animal rights movements were undergoing theoretical expansions. The late 20th century saw the rise of ecofeminism, which critiques how patriarchal structures not only oppress women but also exploit animals and the environment. Simultaneously, the animal rights movement was shifting towards ethical vegetarianism and veganism, drawing from both Peter Singer’s utilitarian arguments (Animal Liberation, 1975) and Tom Regan’s rights-based approach (The Case for Animal Rights, 1983). However, Adams’ feminist critique challenges these frameworks for their reliance on patriarchal notions of autonomy and rationality, instead offering an ethics of care perspective that emphasizes relationality and interconnected oppressions.

Thesis Statement

Adams argues that the oppression of animals and the oppression of women are deeply interconnected within patriarchal, racist, and capitalist systems. She critiques the human/animal dualism and proposes a feminist-ecofeminist framework that integrates animal defense with feminist and environmental activism. Through this lens, she exposes how institutionalized violence—whether against women, people of color, or animals—is perpetuated by dominant ideologies that frame certain bodies as exploitable.

Key Concepts

1. The Arrogant Eye

Adams critiques the “arrogant eye,” a concept borrowed from feminist philosophy, which describes a way of seeing that objectifies, dominates, and disassociates. This mode of perception justifies not only patriarchal control over women but also human domination over animals. The “arrogant eye” underlies animal experimentation, factory farming, and the commodification of female bodies in advertising and pornography.

2. The Intersection of Feminism and Animal Rights

The book highlights how women’s oppression has historically been linked to the dehumanization of animals. Women, particularly women of color, have been likened to animals to justify their subjugation. Adams critiques the white male-dominated animal rights movement for marginalizing feminist contributions and erasing figures such as Ruth Harrison and Brigid Brophy from its intellectual lineage.

3. Abortion Rights and Animal Rights

In a provocative argument, Adams draws parallels between the regulation of women’s reproductive rights and the exploitation of female animals in industrial farming. She notes that patriarchal society seeks to control reproduction—whether through anti-abortion laws or through the forced impregnation of cows in dairy production. However, she also warns against anti-abortion activists appropriating animal rights rhetoric to advance a pro-life agenda.

4. Ecofeminism and the Eating of Animals

Adams builds on her earlier work by examining the ethics of eating animals through an ecofeminist framework. She argues that the consumption of meat and dairy is not only a form of speciesism but also part of a patriarchal system that normalizes violence, particularly against female bodies (both human and nonhuman). She introduces the concept of “feminized protein,” critiquing how milk and eggs—products of female reproductive labor—are appropriated by humans.

5. Institutional Violence and Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism, for Adams, is not merely a dietary choice but an act of resistance against institutionalized violence. She challenges traditional ethical arguments for vegetarianism that rely on rationality and autonomy, advocating instead for an ethics of care that recognizes our relational entanglements with other species.

6. Beastly Theology: The Role of Religion in Animal Oppression

Adams critiques Christian theology for reinforcing human superiority over animals. She argues that biblical interpretations of dominion have justified violence against animals and the natural world, and she calls for a theological rethinking that acknowledges nonhuman creatures as subjects rather than objects.

Chapter Summaries

Carol J. Adams structures Neither Man nor Beast into three parts, each addressing different aspects of the intersection between feminism and animal defense. Below is a detailed chapter-by-chapter breakdown of her arguments.

PART ONE: EXAMINING THE ARROGANT EYE

Chapter 1: Eating Animals

Adams begins by critiquing the normalization of eating animals in Western culture, arguing that the language used to describe meat consumption obscures violence. She introduces the idea of meat as a false mass term, which depersonalizes individual animals and renders them into mere products. This linguistic shift is essential for maintaining speciesist ideologies.

She also expands on her previous concept of the absent referent—the process by which animals are erased from the final product of meat consumption. Just as women’s suffering is often erased from patriarchal narratives, so too is the suffering of animals in the meat industry. She advocates for a feminist-vegetarian critique that challenges these normalized forms of violence.

Chapter 2: The Arrogant Eye and Animal Experimentation

Adams critiques the masculinist perspective on knowledge production in science, particularly in animal experimentation. She argues that the “arrogant eye” of scientific objectivity justifies the use of animals as experimental objects while ignoring the suffering inflicted upon them.

Drawing from feminist critiques of objectivity, she highlights how medical and psychological research has historically treated women and animals as interchangeable subjects of control. She also questions the scientific assumption that animal models provide reliable data for human applications, pointing to the ethical and epistemological flaws in such reasoning.

Chapter 3: Abortion Rights and Animal Rights

In one of the most controversial chapters, Adams explores the parallels and tensions between abortion rights and animal rights. She argues that both women and female animals are subjected to reproductive control, whether through anti-abortion laws or factory farming’s forced breeding.

However, she warns against conflating the two struggles, criticizing the ways in which anti-abortion activists have co-opted animal rights rhetoric to argue against abortion. Adams maintains that a truly feminist ethic must support both reproductive freedom for women and opposition to the exploitation of female animals in industrial agriculture.

Chapter 4: On Beastliness and a Politics of Solidarity

This chapter examines the historical construction of women and people of color as beastly—neither fully human nor fully animal. Adams critiques racist and sexist representations that position certain groups as closer to animality, thus justifying their oppression.

She argues for an intersectional feminist approach that acknowledges the ways in which speciesism, racism, and sexism are interconnected. White privilege in the animal rights movement is also scrutinized, as she calls for a more inclusive and anti-racist approach to animal advocacy.

PART TWO: “WE ARE ONE LESSON”: TRANSFORMING FEMINIST THEORY

Chapter 5: Ecofeminism and the Eating of Animals

Adams explores ecofeminism as a theoretical framework that unites concerns about gender, the environment, and animal rights. She critiques mainstream feminism for often neglecting the role of animals in discussions of oppression.

She highlights how the exploitation of female animals—especially in dairy and egg production—is deeply tied to patriarchal control over reproductive bodies. Ecofeminism, she argues, offers a holistic approach that recognizes these interconnections and promotes vegetarianism as an ethical response.

Chapter 6: The Feminist Traffic in Animals

Adams critiques how animals are used in feminist imagery and metaphors. She examines how feminist discourse sometimes reinforces speciesism by using animal metaphors to describe women’s oppression, such as referring to women as “bitches” or “cows.”

She argues that feminist theory must be careful not to replicate the same hierarchies it seeks to dismantle. By rejecting the dehumanization of women through animal metaphors, feminism should also reject the devaluation of animals themselves.

Chapter 7: Reflections on a Stripping Chimpanzee: On the Need to Integrate Feminism, Animal Defense, and Environmentalism

This chapter critiques a performance art piece featuring a chimpanzee dressed as a stripper, which Adams uses as a metaphor for the intersection of sexism, speciesism, and environmental degradation. She argues that the sexualization of female animals in advertising and popular culture reinforces patriarchal and speciesist ideologies.

Adams calls for an integrated approach that links feminism, animal rights, and environmental activism, challenging the artificial divisions that separate these movements.

PART THREE: FROM MISERY TO GRACE

Chapter 8: Bringing Peace Home: A Feminist Philosophical Perspective on the Abuse of Women, Children, and Pet Animals

Here, Adams discusses the links between domestic violence and animal abuse. She cites studies showing that perpetrators of domestic violence often harm animals as well, and she argues that addressing violence against women must also involve protecting animals in the household.

She calls for feminist shelters to incorporate animal protection measures, such as allowing pets in domestic violence shelters or creating networks for fostering animals while survivors seek safety.

Chapter 9: Feeding on Grace: Institutional Violence, Feminist Ethics, and Vegetarianism

Adams extends her critique of institutional violence by examining how food institutions perpetuate both gendered and speciesist oppression. She argues that meat and dairy industries rely on feminized labor, from the forced reproduction of female animals to the exploitation of women workers in slaughterhouses and food production.

She introduces the idea of vegetarianism as grace—a concept that rejects participation in violence and embraces a compassionate, feminist ethic of care.

Chapter 10: Beastly Theology: When Epistemology Creates Ontology

Adams critiques religious traditions that reinforce human superiority over animals. She challenges interpretations of Christian theology that justify dominion over animals, arguing for a reinterpretation that recognizes animals as subjects rather than objects.

She also discusses how religious rhetoric has been used to control women’s bodies, linking the oppression of women and animals within theological discourse.

Coda: Little Old Ladies in Tennis Shoes

Adams concludes with a reflection on how feminist animal rights activists have been dismissed as eccentric or unimportant. She critiques the ways in which both mainstream feminism and mainstream animal rights activism have marginalized ecofeminist perspectives.

She calls for a rethinking of activism that embraces intersectionality and acknowledges the shared struggles of women, animals, and the environment.

Key Quotes and Analysis

1. The Human/Animal Dualism and Patriarchal Oppression

“The emphasis on differences between humans and animals not only reinforces fierce boundaries about what constitutes humanness, but particularly what constitutes manhood.”

Adams critiques how patriarchal ideologies reinforce a rigid human/animal dichotomy, which serves to justify both speciesism and misogyny. Historically, masculinity has been defined in opposition to both femininity and animality, with women often positioned as closer to nature and therefore less rational or less fully human. By destabilizing this false dualism, Adams calls for a more inclusive understanding of subjectivity that does not rely on domination.

2. The “Arrogant Eye” and the Objectification of Animals and Women

“Feminists, too, are neither man nor beast. Feminists who defend animals challenge human beings to stop considering animals as beasts.”

This statement ties into Adams’ critique of the arrogant eye—a perspective that justifies the objectification and subjugation of both women and animals. She argues that just as feminists challenge the dehumanization of women, they must also challenge the de-animalization of animals. This call for solidarity between feminist and animal liberation movements is a key theme of the book.

3. Abortion and the Control of Female Bodies

“The absence of respect for women’s bodily integrity results in politics that restrict reproductive freedom. That female animals might also possess bodily integrity slips even further from ethical consideration.”

Adams draws a striking parallel between the regulation of women’s reproductive choices and the exploitation of female animals in industrial farming. She critiques the hypocrisy of patriarchal control, which disregards bodily autonomy in both cases—whether through forced pregnancies in dairy cows or anti-abortion legislation for human women. This argument remains highly relevant in contemporary debates on reproductive justice and animal ethics.

4. The Feminization of Protein and the Exploitation of Female Bodies

“Milk must be reconceptualized as a relationship between the cow and those who drink the milk taken from her.”

Adams introduces the concept of feminized protein to describe how dairy and egg production rely on the reproductive exploitation of female animals. The modern food industry erases this relationship, instead presenting dairy products as neutral commodities, much like how women’s labor has historically been invisibilized in capitalist economies. This analysis provides a feminist critique of food production that extends beyond traditional ethical vegetarianism.

5. The Politics of Meat and Institutionalized Violence

“In debates about corpse eating, most people have a tendency to identify with the consumer rather than the consumed.”

Adams challenges the dominant cultural perception of meat consumption, framing it as an act of violence that has been normalized through language and representation. The term corpse eating disrupts this normalization by making the act of consumption visible and ethically fraught. This linguistic intervention aligns with her absent referent theory, which argues that animals are erased from the final product to prevent ethical discomfort.

6. The Erasure of Women in Animal Rights Discourse

“If we trace the animal liberation movement only as far back as Singer’s book, what is lost is not just the women’s voices but also the role of feminism and specifically ecofeminism in creating intersectional theory that recognizes connections among oppression.”

Here, Adams critiques the male-dominated narratives in the animal rights movement, which often attribute its origins to Peter Singer (Animal Liberation) or Tom Regan (The Case for Animal Rights), while erasing the contributions of feminist thinkers like Ruth Harrison and Brigid Brophy. By reclaiming this history, Adams seeks to challenge the patriarchal framing of ethical discourse and emphasize the importance of intersectionality.

Significance and Impact

1. Contribution to Feminist Theory

Adams’ work represents a landmark in feminist theory by integrating animal ethics into the broader discourse on oppression. She builds on the insights of ecofeminism, which critiques the ways in which patriarchy exploits both women and nature. Unlike mainstream feminist movements that often ignore or dismiss animal concerns, Adams insists that true feminist ethics must acknowledge the interconnectedness of all forms of oppression.

Her work also critiques mainstream animal rights discourse for its reliance on patriarchal concepts of rationality and autonomy. By emphasizing relational ethics rather than rigid rights-based frameworks, she aligns herself with feminist care ethics, which prioritizes empathy, interconnectedness, and responsibility.

2. Influence on Vegan and Animal Rights Movements

Adams’ The Sexual Politics of Meat had already established her as a major voice in the animal rights movement, but Neither Man nor Beast deepens and expands her critique. The book challenges the movement’s white, male-dominated leadership and calls for a more inclusive, intersectional approach that incorporates feminism, anti-racism, and environmental justice.

Her concept of feminized protein has been particularly influential in vegan discourse, inspiring activists to critique not just meat consumption but also dairy and egg production as forms of reproductive exploitation. Today, many contemporary vegan activists cite Adams’ work in discussions about how the dairy industry, in particular, is built on the forced impregnation and bodily exploitation of female animals.

3. Contributions to Environmental Ethics and Ecofeminism

Adams’ integration of environmental ethics into feminism and animal rights places her within the tradition of ecofeminism, which argues that the oppression of women, animals, and the environment are interconnected. By exposing the links between industrial agriculture, climate change, and patriarchal violence, she anticipates contemporary debates on sustainable food systems and ethical consumption.

Her critique of the arrogant eye aligns with ecofeminist critiques of Western epistemology, which challenge the mechanistic and exploitative worldview of Enlightenment rationalism. In this sense, Adams’ work has influenced not just feminist and animal rights activism, but also environmental philosophy and critiques of capitalist exploitation.

4. The Ongoing Relevance of Adams’ Arguments

Many of the issues Adams raises in Neither Man nor Beast remain highly relevant today. In particular:

  • Reproductive Justice: The connections she draws between abortion rights and animal exploitation are especially pertinent in the wake of recent attacks on reproductive freedoms (e.g., the overturning of Roe v. Wade in the U.S.).
  • The Feminization of Protein: The rise of plant-based dairy alternatives has brought increased attention to the ethical issues surrounding dairy production, echoing Adams’ critiques.
  • Intersectional Veganism: The vegan movement has become more intersectional in recent years, largely due to critiques like Adams’, which highlight the movement’s historical exclusion of feminist and anti-racist perspectives.
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