Applied Ethics

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Author and Publication Information

  • Title: Applied Ethics
  • Editor: Peter Singer
  • Series: Oxford Readings in Philosophy
  • Publisher: Oxford University Press
  • Year: 1986

Intellectual and Historical Context

Applied Ethics, edited by Peter Singer, is a seminal work that revitalized interest in the application of philosophical inquiry to practical moral issues. Rooted in a tradition that dates back to classical philosophy, the text marks the shift in 20th-century moral philosophy from theoretical frameworks to real-world dilemmas. Following a period dominated by meta-ethics and linguistic analysis, applied ethics emerged during the 1960s in response to societal upheavals, including civil rights movements, debates on justice, and advances in bioethics.

The anthology’s contributors include pivotal thinkers like Thomas Nagel, Judith Jarvis Thomson, and James Rachels. These authors provide rigorous arguments on diverse issues, including euthanasia, abortion, capital punishment, and animal rights. Singer’s editorial selection reflects both the depth and scope of applied ethics as a field.

Thesis Statement

The work argues that philosophical analysis can and should address concrete ethical problems by providing clarity, rigor, and innovative perspectives. Singer and contributors demonstrate that reasoned debate in applied ethics enhances public understanding of contentious issues and contributes to more informed decision-making.

Key Concepts

  1. Moral Relevance of Death: Contributions by Thomas Nagel and David Hume analyze whether death constitutes harm and explore individual autonomy over life-ending decisions.
  2. Euthanasia and Medical Ethics: James Rachels’ essays dissect distinctions between active and passive euthanasia, challenging conventional moral judgments.
  3. Abortion and Personhood: Judith Jarvis Thomson and Michael Tooley explore nuanced arguments regarding rights, bodily autonomy, and the moral status of the fetus.
  4. Animal Rights: Peter Singer’s essay All Animals Are Equal advocates for the extension of ethical considerations to non-human animals, grounded in the principle of equal consideration of interests.
  5. Justice and Social Inequality: Derek Parfit and Janet Radcliffe Richards examine how ethical reasoning applies to global issues like overpopulation and gender equality.
  6. Moral Responsibility and Collective Action: Jonathan Glover’s and John Harris’ writings address dilemmas surrounding personal responsibility and societal welfare in complex systems like healthcare and governance.

Chapter Summaries

Introduction by Peter Singer

Singer provides a comprehensive overview of applied ethics, tracing its historical neglect and modern revival. He situates the essays in the anthology within a broader philosophical tradition that spans from classical thinkers like Plato and Hume to contemporary ethical dilemmas. Singer emphasizes the importance of combining philosophical rigor with practical relevance, framing the collection as a demonstration of how moral philosophy can clarify and resolve pressing societal issues.

1. Death – Thomas Nagel

Nagel examines the philosophical question of whether death is inherently a harm. He argues that death is an evil, not because of any intrinsic experience but because it deprives individuals of future experiences and opportunities for fulfillment. Nagel critiques the symmetry argument—comparing pre-birth and post-death nonexistence—highlighting the unique loss associated with death’s timing and context.

2. Of Suicide – David Hume

Hume critiques religious and societal taboos against suicide, presenting it as a morally permissible act under specific conditions. He disputes the notion that suicide disrupts divine providence, arguing that human agency, like all events, falls within natural laws. Hume also challenges claims that suicide undermines social duties, noting that individuals may justifiably withdraw from life when it becomes a source of suffering.

3. Active and Passive Euthanasia – James Rachels

Rachels challenges the moral distinction between active euthanasia (directly causing death) and passive euthanasia (allowing death to occur). He argues that the former may often be more humane, criticizing medical ethics that permit one while condemning the other. Rachels uses thought experiments to illustrate that outcomes, not the methods, should guide moral judgments.

4. A Defence of Abortion – Judith Jarvis Thomson

Thomson’s essay offers one of the most influential defenses of abortion, introducing the famous violinist thought experiment. She argues that even if the fetus is granted personhood, the right to life does not override a woman’s autonomy over her body. Thomson draws analogies to illuminate the nuanced balance between rights and bodily sovereignty.

5. Abortion and Infanticide – Michael Tooley

Tooley delves into the moral status of fetuses and newborns, contending that rights are contingent on possessing certain cognitive capacities, such as self-awareness. He provocatively argues that neither fetuses nor infants meet these criteria, framing the moral permissibility of abortion and infanticide within a broader ethical framework.

6. The Survival Lottery – John Harris

Harris proposes a thought experiment where a lottery system mandates organ donation from healthy individuals to save multiple lives. This essay provocatively questions whether societal norms about bodily integrity and individual sacrifice are defensible when weighed against utilitarian outcomes.

7. Speech in Favour of Capital Punishment – John Stuart Mill

Mill provides a historical defense of capital punishment, advocating it as a deterrent and a proportional response to heinous crimes. He emphasizes the need for rigorous safeguards to prevent miscarriages of justice while arguing that the ultimate penalty underscores society’s commitment to moral responsibility.

8. Judgement Day – Louis Pascal

Pascal explores the ethical implications of religious and existential beliefs on life and morality. His essay questions whether moral codes derived from religious tenets retain their relevance in a secular context, emphasizing the need for secular ethics in applied issues.

9. ‘It Makes No Difference Whether or Not I Do It’ – Jonathan Glover

Glover critiques moral apathy and the logic behind arguments that diminish individual responsibility in collective action problems. His essay focuses on the psychological and moral frameworks that enable individuals to justify inaction in large-scale ethical dilemmas.

10. Overpopulation and the Quality of Life – Derek Parfit

Parfit examines the ethical challenges posed by overpopulation, particularly the tension between maximizing the quantity of life and enhancing its quality. He introduces the “Repugnant Conclusion,” a paradox where ethical theories prioritize sheer population growth at the expense of individual well-being.

11. What is Wrong with Slavery? – R. M. Hare

Hare provides a systematic critique of slavery, focusing on its intrinsic and consequential harms. He uses ethical reasoning to expose the inconsistencies and fallacies in historical and contemporary justifications for slavery, advocating for universal moral principles.

12. Separate Spheres – Janet Radcliffe Richards

Richards critiques gender-based divisions in social roles, arguing that such separations are neither natural nor justified. She evaluates feminist arguments and counters traditionalist views with evidence of the adverse effects of entrenched gender norms.

13. All Animals Are Equal – Peter Singer

Singer applies the principle of equality to non-human animals, arguing that their capacity for suffering entitles them to moral consideration. He critiques speciesism as analogous to racism and sexism, advocating for reforms in animal welfare and ethical consumption.

14. Game Theory and the Nuclear Arms Race – Nicholas Measor

Measor applies game theory to the ethical and strategic dimensions of nuclear armament. He explores how rational actors can navigate the paradoxes of deterrence and disarmament, emphasizing the moral and existential stakes of global conflict.

Key Quotes and Broader Implications

Thomas Nagel – “Death is bad not because of its positive features, but because of what it deprives us of.”

  • Analysis: Nagel’s assertion encapsulates his deprivation theory, which frames death as harmful due to the loss of future experiences, relationships, and achievements. This perspective shifts the focus from death as a state to its implications for the life that could have been lived.
  • Broader Implications: This argument challenges perspectives that dismiss death as neutral or inevitable. It also informs debates on euthanasia and end-of-life care, emphasizing the subjective value of continued existence.

David Hume – “The life of a man is of no greater importance to the universe than that of an oyster.”

  • Analysis: Hume diminishes anthropocentric moral hierarchies, positing that human life, like all natural phenomena, operates under universal laws. His perspective underpins his defense of suicide, suggesting that the decision to end one’s life does not contravene divine or natural order.
  • Broader Implications: Hume’s argument questions moral absolutism and affirms autonomy in life-ending decisions. It resonates in contemporary discussions of assisted suicide, human dignity, and the limits of moral judgment.

James Rachels – “If we allow passive euthanasia, why not allow active euthanasia?”

  • Analysis: Rachels critiques the perceived moral distinction between letting a patient die and actively causing death. His thought experiments, such as the drowning child analogy, expose inconsistencies in conventional medical ethics.
  • Broader Implications: This challenges policymakers and healthcare professionals to reconsider the ethical frameworks governing end-of-life decisions. It also urges societies to reflect on whether intent or outcome should carry greater moral weight.

Judith Jarvis Thomson – “Having a right to life does not guarantee having a right to use someone else’s body.”

  • Analysis: Thomson’s violinist analogy illuminates the tension between the fetus’s right to life and a woman’s right to bodily autonomy. By framing the debate in terms of competing rights, she redefines the ethical discourse on abortion.
  • Broader Implications: This argument underpins contemporary pro-choice positions, emphasizing autonomy over compulsory altruism. It invites broader applications to bioethics, including organ donation and medical consent.

Michael Tooley – “Moral rights presuppose certain capacities, such as self-awareness.”

  • Analysis: Tooley argues that rights are contingent on cognitive thresholds. His provocative stance on abortion and infanticide reframes debates about the moral status of non-persons.
  • Broader Implications: Tooley’s framework influences bioethical debates about the moral status of embryos, artificial intelligence, and animals. It challenges blanket assertions of universal rights, prompting more nuanced ethical considerations.

Peter Singer – “All animals are equal.”

  • Analysis: Singer extends the principle of equality to non-human animals, arguing against speciesism. He emphasizes that moral consideration should be based on the capacity to suffer rather than species membership.
  • Broader Implications: This argument catalyzed the animal rights movement and redefined ethical consumerism. It also challenges anthropocentric moral frameworks, advocating for expanded moral circles.

Derek Parfit – “The Repugnant Conclusion shows us how maximizing utility can lead to absurd outcomes.”

  • Analysis: Parfit critiques utilitarian ethics by showing how it can justify suboptimal life conditions if they are widely distributed. His work challenges the assumption that more life is inherently better.
  • Broader Implications: This paradox has broad relevance for global policies on population control, resource allocation, and environmental sustainability. It underscores the need to balance quality and quantity in ethical decision-making.

Significance and Impact

Theoretical Contributions

  1. Bridging Theory and Practice: The essays demonstrate the application of abstract ethical theories, such as utilitarianism and deontology, to real-world issues like abortion, euthanasia, and environmental ethics.
  2. Interdisciplinary Relevance: By addressing issues in medicine, law, and public policy, Applied Ethics illustrates the symbiotic relationship between philosophy and other disciplines.
  3. Philosophical Innovation: Authors like Thomson, Parfit, and Singer introduced groundbreaking thought experiments that continue to shape contemporary ethical debates.

Societal Impact

  1. Bioethics and Medical Decision-Making: Essays by Rachels, Thomson, and others have directly influenced guidelines for euthanasia, abortion, and medical resource allocation.
  2. Animal Rights Movement: Singer’s essay galvanized advocacy for animal welfare and reshaped debates on veganism, factory farming, and animal testing.
  3. Feminism and Gender Equality: Contributions by Richards provided intellectual backing for critiques of gender-based social norms, influencing feminist movements and policies.
  4. Public Discourse: The anthology’s clarity and accessibility have elevated public debates on contentious issues, fostering informed civic engagement.
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